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| 1520 |
| | Luther's writings are burnt in Rome by order of the pope | |
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| 1521 |
| | Pope Leo X excommunicates Martin Luther after he has refused to recant | |
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| 1527 |
| | Pope Clement VII hides in Castel Sant'Angelo while Rome is sacked by German mercenaries | |
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| 1540 |
| | Pope Paul III establishes Ignatius Loyola and his followers as the Society of Jesus, or the Jesuits | |
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| 1542 |
| | Pope Paul III establishes the Roman Inquisition, with the specific task of fighting against the Protestant heresy | |
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| 1570 |
| | Pope Pius V excommunicates the English queen, Elizabeth I, causing a severe crisis of loyalty for her Catholic subjects | |
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| 1582 |
| | The new and more accurate Gregorian calendar is introduced by Gregory XIII in the papal states | |
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| 1712 |
| | Alexander Pope's Rape of the Lock introduces a delicate vein of mock-heroic in English poetry | |
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| 1796 |
| | Napoleon creates in northern Italy the Cisalpine Republic, formed from occupied territores including the papal states of Bologna and Ferrara | |
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| 1797 |
| | Pope Pius VI is seized by a French army in Rome and is taken off to captivity in France | |
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